1. Introduction

Mechanisms and patterns existing in nature have developed through millions of years of evolution, and therefore, offer a wide base of ideas for human ideation on numerous topics. Humankind has long considered nature as a source of wonderful inspiration and have frequently tried finding solutions for technical and complex questions by imitating natural mechanisms throughout history. Biomimetics involves studying and modeling structures, processes, and systems existing in nature for using them to develop novel technologies [1, 2]. Using this approach has resulted in innovative creations or developments such as waterproof coatings inspired by lotus leaf, bioadhesive materials by modeling the structure of the gecko's foot, algorithms for optimization and routing modeled after ants and birds, scaffolds used in both tissue engineering and medicine, and robots with flexible movements for underwater exploration and minimally invasive surgeries [2-6].

There has been a growing interest in using bacteria to create advanced technology despite having a relatively simple structure and less complexity compared to eukaryotic cells. Most functions of bacteria occurred in interaction with the environment and other organisms, for instance, tolerate environmental pressures, produce signaling molecules, and form protective structures [7-9]. Such evolved features of these living models not only show complexity and efficiency at the cellular level but also simplicity, intelligence, and effective responses to real challenges. Much research in biomimetics has been focused on the capabilities of bacteria, such as sensing the environment, sharing communication, purposeful movement, formation of group structures like biofilm, and adaptation to stressful conditions [7-10]. Many industries and technologies such as drug delivery, nanotechnology, robotics, biosensors, water treatment, and even artificial intelligence have developed from research on inspirational bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Myxococcus xanthus, Halobacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces, and Clostridium (figure 1) [11-14].

Figure 1. Technologies and industries have developed based on the inspiring properties of bacteria.

Regarding the rapid developments of synthetic biology technologies and new genetic engineering tools, the use of bacterial models for designing advanced and self-regulating systems is increasing. Research on bioinspired bacteria can lead to fresh ideas and provide a deeper understanding of microscopic life. This paper reviews previous relevant efforts, especially those highlighted bacteria as significant for creative progress in various industrial and technological fields.

2. Materials and Methods

In this review, published articles in databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science until 2025 were searched. Keywords such as “Biofilm + Escherichia coli”, “Bacillus subtilis + Spore”, “Streptomyces + Nano”, “Nano + Antibiotic”, “Artificial intelligence + Bacterium”, “Biomimetics + Bacterium”, “Clostridium + Drug”, “Halobacterium + Enzyme”, “Bacterium + coating”, “Biosensor + Bacterium”, “Biomimetic + Bacterium + Medicine”, “Biomimetic membrane + Bacteria”, and “Future + Biomimetic + Bacteria” were used in searches. In total, 131 articles were retrieved from scientific databases. After eliminating duplicates and irrelevant papers, 47 were included in the study, which was mostly published after 2015 (figure 2). The collected data were organized into different categories according to the type of bacterial inspirations and biomimetic applications used in various industrial and technological fields. Artificial intelligence was used to produce scientific illustrations.

Figure 2. Research process and conducted steps of the study.

3. Results

Obtained biomimetic applications inspired by different bacterial species and genera are presented. Categorized and classified information on taxonomy, special features, and biomimetic uses of surveyed bacteria are provided in Table 1.

3.1. From biofilm to biomaterial

Biofilms are built by microorganisms that form communities, grow on wet surfaces, and located in an extracellular polymeric matrix. This matrix has a critical role in surviving microorganisms and protecting them from environmental changes, antimicrobial substances, and the host's immune system, as well as storing nutrients and managing resources [15, 16]. The formation of biofilms depends on self-organization and response to environmental stimuli, and they convert into more complex structures during the growth process. Because the matrix is dynamic, its composition adapts based on the needs of the microbial community. This system can facilitate cooperative interactions, reset genetic information, and allow the most effective use of resources [15, 16].

Research on biofilms is usually directed toward two general goals: preventing their formation in sensitive environments, such as medical, food industries, and industrial settings, and using their capabilities in water treatment, bioremediation, and biological processes. Some resistant species like Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli have a crucial role in biotechnology and environmental engineering research. In extreme conditions such as exposure to antibiotics, these bacteria can develop stable biofilms to survive [14, 15].

Bacteria's ability to form biofilms has inspired developments in various industries: I. Corrosion resistance property: The products of the metabolism of the iron reducing bacterium, Shewanella oneidensis, can prevent steel from corrosion. This capability can enhance the production of measures with biological corrosion control [17]. Denitrifying bacteria can also inhibit concrete corrosion by producing nitrite [18]. II. Self-healing systems: The self-healing property of biofilms is used to develop self-healing bioconcrete. Using multiple bacterial species in biofilm structure has indicated improved bioconcrete performance. These coatings can regenerate themselves when damaged and can be used for building materials, underground facilities, and dams [18].

3.2. The magic of spore                                                                                                              

The spores of bacteria are one of the most resistant and complex biological structures used for studying cellular differentiation and resistance to environmental changes. In condition of insufficient nutrients, the species Bacillus subtilis begins sporulation; a mechanism that comprises uneven cell division and formation of metabolically inactive spores. These spores can extraordinarily tolerate extreme environmental conditions such as heat, dryness, ultraviolet radiation, and many different chemicals [19-22]. Due to possessing special features such as low permeability, a core with very little water, and the presence of materials such as carotenoids, dipicolinic acid, and small acid soluble proteins, the spore of bacteria can resist environmental changes and keep DNA safe in harsh conditions [19]. Spore's coat includes more than 70 different proteins, which play an essential role in protecting the genome against various environmental stresses and providing impenetrability of the inner membrane [20]. This coat not only prevents entering harmful chemicals but also protects the spore from mechanical damage. Thanks to significant features, fundamental proteins of spores can maintain their functions under unfavorable environmental conditions  [20, 23].

The capability of bacteria to form spore has found biomimetic applications: I. Spore based antibiotic detection method: Using rapid, accurate, and inexpensive methods to detect chemical compounds and antibiotics is highly demanded in the food industry. Numerous biological molecules could be utilized in sensing and recognizing a variety of components. The spores of Bacillus spp. have been inspired to produce a biosensor for the rapid detection of twelve ß‑lactam antibiotics in milk. The significant features of this biosensor, such as sensitivity, selectivity, and low cost, make it a good alternative to conventional methods in the dairy industry [24]. II. Drug storage and delivery systems: The study of spores of bacteria, especially Bacillus spp. has a crucial role in enhancing drug delivery systems. Spore like structures can be used to package and direct drugs to target parts of the body, especially in cancer therapy and vaccines. These structures can store and protect medicines and provide facilitated release. The flexibility of spore is critical during its dehydration and rehydration. This property can find various applications in drug delivery in the future [21, 23, 25].

3.3. Biological nanoweapons

Delivering drugs to target cells without damaging to healthy cells is a challenge in medicine. Scientific advances in nanotechnology resulted in the development of biomimetic nanoparticles and nanocarriers which serve for drug delivery in biomedical sciences [4]. For instance, hydrophilic polymers are now applied to nanoparticles as a protective layer to enhance the performance of drug nanocarriers [11].

Studying the mechanisms of bacteria can improve the development of drug delivery systems: I. Biological drug delivery systems: The study of the unique biological mechanisms of Streptomyces led to the production of nanoparticles that carry treatment drugs to targeted areas in the body [26].

Table 1. Biomimetic applications derived from specific bacterial characteristics

3.4. Filaments of life

Materials and devices at the nanometer scale have received significant research interest due to their unique properties. Nanomaterials are used to develop biomaterials and help improve the capabilities of biomaterials in living organisms. Nanobiomaterials have been increasingly used for various applications, such as cancer therapy, drug delivery, and tissue engineering [27].

The biomimetic approach to studying bacterial unique structures could result in innovative applications in various industries and technologies: I. Biocompatible material design: Streptomyces bacteria have a network of filaments that enables them to scavenge substances from larger areas in their surrounding environment and produce new materials. The study of Streptomyces filamentous structure could lead to advancements in the production of biocompatible materials for use in medicine and composite applications. In addition, exploring how the filamentous structures of Streptomyces branch, grow and obtain nutrients may facilitate the development of innovative optimization algorithms [28, 29].

3.5. Bioshields

Streptomyces species produce about 70% of clinically used antibiotics, such as tetracycline and erythromycin. Because of that, these bacteria have received a growing research interest, both for exploring new antibiotics and finding new applications in different technologies [30].

The antibiotic production property of Streptomyces species could help in developing biological systems: I. Antibacterial systems: Streptomyces spp. produce antimicrobial products against various bacteria. New drugs can also be discovered in the future through studies on Streptomyces species. It is hoped that the bioproducts of these bacteria will be beneficial in confronting known antibiotic resistance mechanisms and could also find applications in biological systems, such as wastewater treatment systems  [31, 32].

3.6. Together to triumph

Several social behaviors and multicellular responses have been observed in the bacterial world. For instance, the members of the species Myxococcus xanthus can form communities and display considerable social behavior for different purposes such as cooperative predation and teamwork motility [10, 33].

Research on bacterial social behaviors has been considered to improve the optimization algorithms: I. Distributed optimization algorithm: Researchers applied the social foraging features of M. xanthus and E. coli to improve optimization algorithms [12].

3.7. Ecofriendly decomposers

Some bacteria can break down organic materials and convert them into renewable products [34]. The mechanisms involved in these bacteria reduce landfill waste and greenhouse gas emissions and improve soil health.

The bacterial ability to degrade organic materials has found industrial applications: I. Development of biodegradable materials: The study of biological decomposition mechanisms of bacteria such as Clostridium spp. can lead to production of biodegradable polymer materials for various industries like the packaging industry [35]. These synthetic polymers can quickly break down by bacteria, reducing their damage to the environment.

3.8. Resilience from the brine

Salt-loving microbes indicate a range of biotechnological capabilities and offer a wide base of ideas for inspiration. They represent a variety of osmoadaptation strategies to withstand hostile conditions, which can find biomimetic applications [36, 37].

Halophilic bacteria possess notable properties that make them promising candidates for bioinspiration: I. Synthesis of new generation of liposomes: Liposomes are small vesicles used to carry and deliver drugs to a particular part of the body. The liposomal structure of Archaea is called archaeosome, which possess significant features such as high stability and rapid drug delivery. Since archaeosomes have remarkable features, Haloarchaea species like Halobacterium salinarum are considered significant candidates for treating disease, particularly cancers and allergies  [37]. II. Antifouling coatings: Some Halobacteria species were shown to have organic solvent tolerance [36, 38]. For instance, the extracellular protease of Halobacterium sp. was indicated to be highly resistant to organic solvents such as toluene and xylene. The enzyme may help in producing antifouling coatings for various industries [38].

3.9. Developers of optical technologies

Bacteriorhodopsin, a light sensitive protein, is found in the purple membrane of Halobacterium salinarum. Thanks to this protein, there have been advancements in electronic devices and optical sensors, and data storage [13, 39, 40].

Research on bacteriorhodopsin has contributed to advancements in optical technologies: I. The developments of optical sensors: Working on how bacteriorhodopsin absorbs light in Halobacterium species has led to the design of more advanced biosensors and optical devices. Considering the conversion of light into signals, these sensors detect chemicals and biological materials with high accuracy. With these technologies, the responses of optical sensors become more precise and less sensitive to disturbances. Bacteriorhodopsin has a crucial role in developing immunosensors, motion sensors, and X-ray sensors [13, 39]. II. Development of imaging systems: The features of bacteriorhodopsin films were used in optical image processing systems, resulting in high quality images with less noises [39].

3.10. Micropurifier

Biomimetic membranes are synthetic membranes that mimic structures and mechanisms of natural membranes for separation. Halophilic microorganisms possess unique biological membranes which help them to survive in high salt concentrations. These biological membranes have selective permeability that allow and control what enters or exits [40, 41].

Biomimetic membranes can find applications in wastewater treatment and separating molecules technologies: I. Biopurification technologies: Due to the presence of unique transport proteins, the membrane of Halobacterium can both absorb and expel particular ions, which cause maintenance of the membrane potential [42]. This bacterial trait has inspired the design of artificial membranes for separating molecules. The membranes are required in water treatment systems and processing chemicals in various industries and technologies, since they boost purification success, increase efficiency and consume less energy.

3.11. Bacteria and artificial intelligence

Due to their behavior and biological processes, bacteria have been inspired to develop novel algorithms in various fields, including optimization and robotics. These algorithms have utilized principles such as bacterial foraging to solve complex problems [43-46].

The study of some bacterial biological processes could lead to the development of artificial intelligence algorithms: I. Development of optimization algorithms: Bacterial foraging optimization (BFO) algorithm was inspired by the foraging behavior of bacteria like Escherichia coli and has been found various biomimetic applications [43-45]. Recently, a promoted BFO algorithm has been proposed, which reduces the local convergence and improves the algorithm's stability compared to classical BFO [47]. This novel algorithm overcomes the limitations of the classical algorithm and leads to solve complex optimization problems.

4. Discussion

Biomimetics studies biological structures and nature's processes and plays a crucial role in developing technological and industrial progress. Among all living organisms, bacteria are significantly notable for inspiring the development of new technologies. These microscopic organisms are able to survive, adapt, produce bioactive compounds, and organize their internal functions. As a result, they provide endless sources of ideas in various fields of engineering, nanotechnology, biotechnology, medicine, energy, and even artificial intelligence. According to the results of this paper, eight genera belonging to eight bacterial families were listed to have biomimetic applications. Considering all presented biomimetic applications for these bacterial groups, the taxa Halobacterium (Halobacteriaceae), Bacillus (Bacillaceae), and Streptomyces (Streptomycetaceae) contribute the most frequent sources of inspiration, respectively (Table 1). The results show that differences in the functional and structural characteristics of every family are related to the type of biomimetic inspiration.

Halophilic archaea, especially Halobacterium spp. have unique features, including the production of bacteriorhodopsin, possession of archaeosome, osmoadaptation, and organic solvents resistance. These abilities have been sources of inspiration to develop various industries and technologies, such as antifouling coatings, optical technology, drug delivery, and synthetic membranes [13, 35-39, 41].

Streptomyces, the largest genus of Actinobacteria, is a filamentous, spore-forming, and colony-forming bacteria. The Streptomyces spp. known for producing widespread secondary metabolites and considered a source of inspiration in developing pharmaceutical compounds, antibiotics, and fragrances [26, 28, 30, 32].

The members of the genus Bacillus are rod-shaped, aerobic, spore-forming, and widely distributed in nature.  Thanks to their spore structure, Bacillus spp. have led to the development of an antibiotic detection method in dairy industry, as well as innovative advancement in drug delivery systems [24, 25].

Apart from the bacteria that contributed more to biological inspiration, some other bacteria have significant contributions to the development of new technologies. Due to its ability to make complex biofilm structures, the species Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been inspired to design self-healing system. The species Myxococcus xanthus has become a model for developing artificial intelligence and robotic algorithms through its social movement and cellular organization [12].

The family Enterobacteriaceae and its well-known species, Escherichia coli, are remarkable for being bioflexible and have broad applications in genetic engineering. Considering features such as high adaptability, quick division, and extensive genetic modification ability, the species is noticed as a source of inspiration for designing biological circuits, biological artificial intelligence, and control systems [12, 47]. Lastly, it should be noted that a bacterial species with more biomimetic applications does not necessarily show its importance compared to other bacteria; it simply indicates that more research has been conducted on it. There are still a lot of potential bacterial inspirations waiting in the species we know less about.

Considering significant features of bacteria, simultaneous inspirations from two or more bacterial species might be resulted in innovative advancements in various technologies and industries. Recent developments in system modeling, nanobiotechnology, and artificial intelligence could be facilitated multi bacterial approaches in biomimetic studies.

5. Conclusion

Biomimetic research is growing because it discovers new mechanisms and provides practical solutions for solving problems. Nowadays, bacterial structures and mechanisms are considered infinite sources of bioinspiration. The microbial world offers plenty of fresh ideas for tackling human challenges. The applications mentioned in this review highlighted that bacteria have a vital role in accelerating scientific and industrial innovations.

Authorship contribution statement

Hassan Maddahi: Supervision, Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Writing- Review & Editing, Validation and Project Administration. Nazanin Moayerian: Investigation, Data Curation, Writing Original Draft and Visualisation.

Declaration of generative AI in scientific writing

AI was partially used for grammar checking.

Funding

The authors declared that no funding had been received for the study.

Declaration of competing interest

Authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest related to this work.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the respected staff of Arak University for their assistance.